evolution and ethics and other essays-第26部分

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the　handles　of　a　bellows　are　separated；　in　order　to　fill　the　bellows
with　air；　and；　in　like　manner；　it　involves　that　expenditure　of　energy
which　we　call　exertion；　or　work；　or　labour。　It　is；　therefore；　no　mere
metaphor　to　say　that　man　is　destined　to　a　life　of　toil：　the　work　of
respiration　which　began　with　his　first　breath　ends　only　with　his　last；
nor　does　one　born　in　the　purple　get　off　with　a　lighter　task　than　the
child　who　first　sees　light　under　a　hedge。

＇148＇　How　is　it　that　the　new…born　infant　is　enabled　to　perform　this
first　instalment　of　the　sentence　of　life…long　labour　which　no　man　may
escape？　　Whatever　else　a　child　may　be；　in　respect　of　this　particular
question；　it　is　a　complicated　piece　of　mechanism；　built　up　out　of
materials　supplied　by　its　mother；　and　in　the　course　of　such
building…up；　provided　with　a　set　of　motorsthe　muscles。　Each　of　these
muscles　contains　a　stock　of　substance　capable　of　yielding　energy　under
certain　conditions；　one　of　which　is　a　change　of　state　in　the　nerve
fibres　connected　with　it。　The　powder　in　a　loaded　gun　is　such　another
stock　of　substance　capable　of　yielding　energy　in　consequence　of　a
change　of　state　in　the　mechanism　of　the　lock；　which　intervenes　between
the　finger　of　the　man　who　pulls　the　trigger　and　the　cartridge。　If　that
change　is　brought　about；　the　potential　energy　of　the　powder　passes
suddenly　into　actual　energy；　and　does　the　work　of　propelling　the
bullet。　The　powder；　therefore；　may　be　appropriately　called　work…stuff；
not　only　because　it　is　stuff　which　is　easily　made　to　yield　work　in　the
physical　sense；　but　because　a　good　deal　of　work　in　the　economical　sense
has　contributed　to　its　production。　Labour　was　necessary　to　collect；
transport；　and　purify　the　raw　sulphur　and　saltpetre；　to　cut　wood　and
convert　it　into　powdered　charcoal；　to　mix　these　ingredients　in　the
right　proportions；　to　give　the　mixture　the　proper　grain；　and　so　on。
The　powder　＇149＇　once　formed　part　of　the　stock；　or　capital；　of　a
powder…maker：　and　it　is　not　only　certain　natural　bodies　which　are
collected　and　stored　in　the　gunpowder；　but　the　labour　bestowed　on　the
operations　mentioned　may　be　figuratively　said　to　be　incorporated　in
it。

In　principle；　the　work…stuff　stored　in　the　muscles　of　the　new…born
child　is　comparable　to　that　stored　in　the　gun…barrel。　The　infant　is
launched　into　altogether　new　surroundings；　and　these　operate　through
the　mechanism　of　the　nervous　machinery；　with　the　result　that　the
potential　energy　of　some　of　the　work…stuff　in　the　muscles　which　bring
about　inspiration　is　suddenly　converted　into　actual　energy；　and　this；
operating　through　the　mechanism　of　the　respiratory　apparatus；　gives
rise　to　an　act　of　inspiration。　As　the　bullet　is　propelled　by　the
〃going　off〃　of　the　powder；　as　it　might　be　said　that　the　ribs　are
raised　and　the　midriff　depressed　by　the　〃going　off〃　of　certain
portions　of　muscular　work…stuff。　This　work…stuff　is　part　of　a　stock　or
capital　of　that　commodity　stored　up　in　the　child's　organism　before
birth；　at　the　expense　of　the　mother；　and　the　mother　has　made　good　her
expenditure　by　drawing　upon　the　capital　of　food…stuffs　which　furnished
her　daily　maintenance。

Under　these　circumstances；　it　does　not　appear　to　me　to　be　open　to　doubt
that　the　primary　act　of　outward　labour　in　the　series　which　necessarily
accompany　＇150＇　the　life　of　man　is　dependent　upon　the　pre…existence　of
a　stock　of　material　which　is　not　only　of　use　to　him；　but　which　is
disposed　in　such　a　manner　as　to　be　utilisable　with　facility。　And　I
further　imagine　that　the　propriety　of　the　application　of　the　term
'capital'　to　this　stock　of　useful　substance　cannot　be　justly　called　in
question；　inasmuch　as　it　is　easy　to　prove　that　the　essential
constituents　of　the　work…stuff　accumulated　in　the　child's　muscles　have
merely　been　transferred　from　the　store　of　food…stuffs；　which　everybody
admits　to　be　capital；　by　means　of　the　maternal　organism　to　that　of　the
child；　in　which　they　are　again　deposited　to　await　use。　Every
subsequent　act　of　labour；　in　like　manner；　involves　an　equivalent
consumption　of　the　child's　store　of　work…stuffits　vital　capital；　and
one　of　the　main　objects　of　the　process　of　breathing　is　to　get　rid　of
some　of　the　effects　of　that　consumption。　It　follows；　then；　that；　even
if　no　other　than　the　respiratory　work　were　going　on　in　the　organism；
the　capital　of　work…stuff；　which　the　child　brought　with　it　into　the
world；　must　sooner　or　later　be　used　up；　and　the　movements　of　breathing
must　come　to　an　end；　just　as　the　see…saw　of　the　piston　of　a
steam…engine　stops　when　the　coal　in　the　fireplace　has　burnt　away。

Milk；　however；　is　a　stock　of　materials　which　essentially　consists　of
savings　from　the　food…stuffs　supplied　to　the　mother。　And　these　savings
are　＇151＇　in　such　a　physical　and　chemical　condition　that　the　organism
of　the　child　can　easily　convert　them　into　work…stuff。　That　is　to　say；
by　borrowing　directly　from　the　vital　capital　of　the　mother；　indirectly
from　the　store　in　the　natural　bodies　accessible　to　her；　it　can　make
good　the　loss　of　its　own。　The　operation　of　borrowing；　however；
involves　further　work；　that　is；　the　labour　of　sucking；　which　is　a
mechanical　operation　of　much　the　same　nature　as　breathing。　The　child
thus　pays　for　the　capital　it　borrows　in　labour；　but　as　the　value　in
work…stuff　of　the　milk　obtained　is　very　far　greater　than　the　value　of
that　labour；　estimated　by　the　consumption　of　work…stuff　it　involves；
the　operation　yields　a　large　profit　to　the　infant。　The　overplus　of
food…stuff　suffices　to　increase　the　child's　capital　of　work…stuff；　and
to　supply　not　only　the　materials　for　the　enlargement　of　the　〃buildings
and　machinery〃　which　is　expressed　by　the　child's　growth；　but　also　the
energy　required　to　put　all　these　materials　together；　and　to　carry　them
to　their　proper　places。　Thus；　throughout　the　years　of　infancy；　and　so
long　thereafter　as　the　youth　or　man　is　not　thrown　upon　his　own
resources；　he　lives　by　consuming　the　vital　capital　provided　by　others。
To　use　a　terminology　which　is　more　common　than　appropriate；　whatever
work　he　performs　（and　he　does　a　good　deal；　if　only　in　mere　locomotion）
is　unproductive。

＇152＇　Let　us　now　suppose　the　child　come　to　man's　estate　in　the
condition　of　a　wandering　savage；　dependent　for　his　food　upon　what　he
can　pick　up　or　catch；　after　the　fashion　of　the　Australian　aborigines。
It　is　plain　that　the　place　of　mother；　as　the　supplier　of　vital
capital；　is　now　taken　by　the　fruits；　seeds；　and　roots　of　plants　and　by
various　kinds　of　animals。　It　is　they　alone　which　contain　stocks　of
those　substances　which　can　be　converted　within　the　man's　organism　into
work…stuff；　and　of　the　other　matters；　except　air　and　water；　required
to　supply　the　constant　consumption　of　his　capital　and　to　keep　his
organic　machinery　going。　In　no　way　does　the　savage　contribute　to　the
production　of　these　substances。　Whatever　labour　he　bestows　upon　such
vegetable　and　animal　bodies；　on　the　contrary；　is　devoted　to　their
destruction；　and　it　is　a　mere　matter　of　accident　whether　a　little
labour　yields　him　a　great　dealas　in　the　case；　for　example；　of　a
stranded　whale；　or　whether　much　labour　yields　next　to　nothingas　in
times　of　long…continued　drought。　The　sava