evolution and ethics and other essays-第29部分

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being　employed；　if　they　are　not　wanted。　But；　on　the　other　hand；　I
think　it　is　clear　that　there　is　only　one　condition　upon　which　the
persons　to　whom　the　offer　of　these　〃wages〃　is　made　can　accept　it；　and
that　is　that　the　things　offered　in　exchange　for　a　year's　work　shall
contain　at　least　as　much　vital　capital　as　a　man　uses　up　in　doing　the
year's　work。　For　no　rational　man　could　knowingly　and　willingly　accept
conditions　which　necessarily　involve　starvation。　Therefore　there　is　an
irreducible　minimum　of　wages；　it　is　such　an　amount　of　vital　capital　as
suffices　to　replace　the　inevitable　consumption　of　the　person　hired。
Now；　surely；　it　is　beyond　a　doubt　that　these　wages；　whether　at　or
above　the　irreducible　minimum；　are　paid　out　of　the　capital　disposable
after　the　wants　of　the　owner　of　the　flock　or　of　the　crop　of　grain　are
satisfied；　and；　from　what　has　been　said　already；　it　follows　that　there
is　a　limit　to　the　number　of　men；　whether　hired；　or　brought　in　any　other
way；　who　can　be　maintained　by　the　sheep　owner　or　landowner　out　of　his
own　resources。　Since　no　amount　of　labour　can　produce　an　ounce　of
foodstuff　beyond　the　maximum　producible　by　a　limited　number　of　plants；
under　the　most　favourable　circumstances　in　regard　to　those　conditions
which　are　not　affected　by　labour；　it　follows　＇163＇　that；　if　the　number
of　men　to　be　fed　increases　indefinitely；　a　time　must　come　when　some
will　have　to　starve。　That　is　the　essence　of　the　so…called　Malthusian
doctrine；　and　it　is　a　truth　which；　to　my　mind；　is　as　plain　as　the
general　proposition　that　a　quantity　which　constantly　increases　will；
some　time　or　other；　exceed　any　greater　quantity　the　amount　of　which　is
fixed。

The　foregoing　considerations　leave　no　doubt　about　the　fundamental
condition　of　the　existence　of　any　polity；　or　organised　society　of　men；
either　in　a　purely　pastoral　or　purely　agricultural　state；　or　in　any
mixture　of　both　states。　It　must　possess　a　store　of　vital　capital　to
start　with；　and　the　means　of　repairing　the　consumption　of　that　capital
which　takes　place　as　a　consequence　of　the　work　of　the　members　of　the
society。　And；　if　the　polity　occupies　a　completely　isolated　area　of　the
earth's　surface；　the　numerical　strength　of　that　polity　can　never
exceed　the　quotient　of　the　maximum　quantity　of　food…stuffs　producible
by　the　green　plants　on　that　area；　in　each　year；　divided　by　the
quantity　necessary　for　the　maintenance　of　each　person　during　the　year。
But；　there　is　a　third　mode　of　existence　possible　to　a　polity；　it　may；
conceivably；　be　neither　purely　pastoral　nor　purely　agricultural；　but
purely　manufacturing。　Let　us　suppose　three　islands；　like　Gran　Canaria；
Teneriffe　and　Lanzerote；　in　the　Canaries；　to　be　quite　cut　off　from　the
rest　of　the　world。　Let　Gran　Canaria　be　＇164＇　inhabited　by
grain…raisers；　Teneriffe　by　cattle…breeders；　while　the　population　of
Lanzerote　（which　we　may　suppose　to　be　utterly　barren）　consists　of
carpenters；　woollen　manufacturers；　and　shoemakers。　Then　the　facts　of
daily　experience　teach　us　that　the　people　of　Lanzerote　could　never
have　existed　unless　they　came　to　the　island　provided　with　a　stock　of
food…stuffs；　and　that　they　could　not　continue　to　exist；　unless　that
stock；　as　it　was　consumed；　was　made　up　by　contributions　from　the　vital
capital　of　either　Gran　Canaria；　or　Teneriffe；　or　both。　Moreover；　the
carpenters　of　Lanzerote　could　do　nothing；　unless　they　were　provided
with　wood　from　the　other　islands；　nor　could　the　wool　spinners　and
weavers　or　the　shoemakers　work　without　wool　and　skins　from　the　same
sources。　The　wood　and　the　wool　and　the　skins　are；　in　fact；　the　capital
without　which　their　work　as　manufacturers　in　their　respective　trades
is　impossibleso　that　the　vital　and　other　capital　supplied　by　Gran
Canaria　and　Teneriffe　is　most　indubitably　the　necessary　antecedent　of
the　industrial　labour　of　Lanzerote。　It　is　perfectly　true　that　by　the
time　the　wood；　the　wool；　and　the　skins　reached　Lanzerote　a　good　deal
of　labour　in　cutting；　shearing；　skinning；　transport；　and　so　on；　would
have　been　spent　upon　them。　But　this　does　not　alter　the　fact　that　the
only　〃production〃　which　is　essential　to　the　existence　of　the
population　of　Teneriffe　and　Gran　Canaria　is　that　effected　by　the　＇165＇
green　plants　in　both　islands；　and　that　all　the　labour　spent　upon　the
raw　produce　useful　in　manufacture；　directly　or　indirectly　yielded　by
themby　the　inhabitants　of　these　islands　and　by　those　of　Lanzerote
into　the　bargainwill　not　provide　one　solitary　Lanzerotian　with　a
dinner；　unless　the　Teneriffians　and　Canariotes　happen　to　want　his
goods　and　to　be　willing　to　give　some　of　their　vital　capital　in
exchange　for　them。

Under　the　circumstances　defined；　if　Teneriffe　and　Gran　Canaria
disappeared；　or　if　their　inhabitants　ceased　to　care　for　carpentry；
clothing；　or　shoes；　the　people　of　Lanzerote　must　starve。　But　if　they
wish　to　buy；　then　the　Lanzerotians；　by　〃cultivating〃　the　buyers；
indirectly　favour　the　cultivation　of　the　produce　of　those　buyers。

Thus；　if　the　question　is　asked　whether　the　labour　employed　in
manufacture　in　Lanzerote　is　〃productive〃　or　〃unproductive〃　there　can
be　only　one　reply。　If　anybody　will　exchange　vital　capital；　or　that
which　can　be　exchanged　for　vital　capital；　for　Lanzerote　goods；　it　is
productive；　if　not；　it　is　unproductive。

In　the　case　of　the　manufacturer；　the　dependence　of　labour　upon　capital
is　still　more　intimate　than　in　that　of　the　herdsman　or　agriculturist。
When　the　latter　are　once　started　they　can　go　on；　without　troubling
themselves　about　the　existence　of　any　other　people。　But　the
manufacturer　depends　on　pre…existing　capital；　not　only　at　the　＇166＇
beginning；　but　at　the　end　of　his　operations。　However　great　the
expenditure　of　his　labour　and　of　his　skill；　the　result；　for　the
purpose　of　maintaining　his　existence；　is　just　the　same　as　if　he　had
done　nothing；　unless　there　is　a　customer　able　and　willing　to　exchange
food…stuffs　for　that　which　his　labour　and　skill　have　achieved。

There　is　another　point　concerning　which　it　is　very　necessary　to　have
clear　ideas。　Suppose　a　carpenter　in　Lanzerote　to　be　engaged　in　making
chests　of　drawers。　Let　us　suppose　that　a；　the　timber；　and　b；　the　grain
and　meat　needful　for　the　man's　sustenance　until　he　can　finish　a　chest
of　drawers；　have　to　be　paid　for　by　that　chest。　Then　the　capital　with
which　he　starts　is　represented　by　a　＋　b。　He　could　not　start　at　all
unless　he　had　it；　day　by　day；　he　must　destroy　more　or　less　of　the
substance　and　of　the　general　adaptability　of　a　in　order　to　work　it　up
into　the　special　forms　needed　to　constitute　the　chest　of　drawers；　and；
day　by　day；　he　must　use　up　at　least　so　much　of　b　as　will　replace　his
loss　of　vital　capital　by　the　work　of　that　day。　　Suppose　it　takes　the
carpenter　and　his　workmen　ten　days　to　saw　up　the　timber；　to　plane　the
boards；　and　to　give　them　the　shape　and　size　proper　for　the　various
parts　of　the　chest　of　drawers。　And　suppose　that　he　then　offers　his
heap　of　boards　to　the　advancer　of　a　＋　b　as　an　equivalent　for　the　wood
＋　ten　days'　supply　of　vital　capital？　The　latter　will　surely　say：　〃No。
＇167＇　I　did　not　ask　for　a　heap　of　boards。　I　asked　for　a　chest　of
drawers。　Up　to　this　time；　so　far　as　I　am　concerned；　you　have　done
nothi