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increase　in　means　of　subsistence；　productive　power；　and



convenience；　would　the　working　classes　thereby　obtain！　But　even　far



more　than　by　improved　breeds；　and　importation　from　one　country　into



another　of　various　animals；　has　the　productive　power　of　the　human



race　been　increased　by　the　improvement　and　importation　of　trees　and



plants。　This　is　at　once　evident；　if　we　compare　the　original　plants



as　they　have　sprung　from　the　bosom　of　nature；　with　their　improved



species。　How　little　do　the　primitive　plants　of　the　various　species



of　corn　and　of　fruit　trees；　of　edible　vegetables　and　of　the　olive；



resemble　in　form　and　utility　their　improved　offspring！　What　masses



of　means　of　nourishment；　of　enjoyment；　and　comfort；　and　what



opportunities　for　the　useful　application　of　human　powers；　have　been



derived　from　them！　The　potato；　the　beet…root；　the　cultivation　of



root　crops　for　cattle；　together　with　the　improved　systems　of



manuring　and　improved　agricultural　machines；　have　increased



ten…fold　the　returns　of　agriculture；　as　it　is　at　present　carried　on



by　the　Asiatic　tribes。



　　　　Science　has　already　done　much　with　regard　to　the　discovery　of



new　plants　and　the　improvement　of　them；　but　governments　have　not



yet　devoted　to　this　important　object　so　much　attention　as　they



ought　to　have　done；　in　the　interests　of　economy。　Quite　recently；



species　of　grass　are　said　to　have　been　discovered　in　the　savannas



of　North　America；　which　from　the　poorest　soil　yield　a　higher



produce　than　any　fodder　plants；　which　are　as　yet　known　to　us；　do



from　the　richest　soil。　It　is　very　probable　that　in　the　wild　regions



of　America；　Asia；　Africa；　and　Australia；　a　quantity　of　plants　still



vegetate　uselessly；　the　transplantation　and　improvement　of　which



might　infinitely　augment　the　prosperity　of　the　inhabitants　of



temperate　climates。



　　　　It　is　clear　that　most　of　the　improvements　and　transportations



of　animals　and　vegetables；　most　of　the　new　discoveries　which　are



made　with　respect　to　them；　as　well　as　all　other　progress；



inventions；　and　discoveries；　are　chiefly　calculated　to　benefit　the



countries　of　the　temperate　zone；　and　of　those　most　of　all；　the



manufacturing　countries。







NOTES：







1。　Esprit　des　Lois；　Livre　xx。　chap。　xxiii。







2。　According　to　Chardin；　the　Guebres；　an　unmixed　tribe　of　the　old



Persians；　are　an　ugly；　deformed；　and　clumsy　race；　like　all　nations



of　Mongol　descent；　while　the　Persian　nobility；　which　for　centuries



has　intermarried　with　Georgian　and　Circassian　women；　is



distinguished　for　beauty　and　strength。　Dr　Pritchard　remarks　that



the　unmixed　Celts　of　the　Scottish　highlands　are　far　behind　the



Scottish　Lowlanders　（descendants　of　Saxons　and　Celts）　in　height；



bodily　power；　and　fine　figure。　Pallas　makes　similar　observations



respecting　the　descendants　of　the　Russians　and　Tartars　in



comparison　with　the　unmixed　tribes　to　which　they　are　related。　Azara



affirms　that　the　descendants　of　the　Spaniards　and　the　natives　of



Paraguay　are　a　much　more　handsome　and　powerful　race　of　men　than



their　ancestors　on　both　sides。　The　advantages　of　the　crossing　of



race　are　not　only　apparent　in　the　mixing　of　different　nations；　but



also　in　the　mixing　of　different　family　stocks　in　one　and　the　same



nation。　Thus　the　Creole　negroes　far　surpass　those　negroes　who　have



sprung　from　unmixed　tribes；　and　who　have　come　direct　from　Africa　to



America；　in　mental　gifts　as　well　as　in　bodily　power。　The



Caribbeans；　the　only　Indian　race　which　chooses　regularly　its　women



From　neighbouring　tribes；　are　in　every　respect　superior　to　all



other　American　tribes。　If　this　is　a　law　of　nature；　the　rise　and



progress　which　the　cities　of　the　Middle　Ages　displayed　shortly



after　their　foundation；　as　well　as　the　energy　and　fine　bodily



appearance　of　the　American　people；　are　hence　partly　explained。







Chapter　19







The　Manufacturing　Power　and　the　Instrumental　Powers　（Material



Capital）　Of　the　Nation







　　　　The　nation　derives　its　productive　power　from　the　mental　and



physical　powers　of　the　individuals；　from　their　social；　municipal；



and　political　conditions　and　institutions；　from　the　natural



resources　placed　at　its　disposal；　or　from　the　instruments　it



possesses　as　the　material　products　of　former　mental　and　bodily



exertions　（material；　agricultural；　manufacturing；　and　commercial



capital）。　In　the　last　two　chapters　we　have　dealt　with　the　influence



of　manufactures　on　the　three　first…named　sources　of　the　national



productive　powers；　the　present　and　the　following　chapter　are



devoted　to　the　demonstration　of　its　influence　on　the　one　last



named。



　　　　That　which　we　understand　by　the　term　'instrumental　powers'　is



called　'capital'　by　the　school。　It　matters　but　little　by　what　word



an　object　is　signified；　but　it　matters　very　much　（especially　with



regard　to　scientific　investigations）　that　the　word　selected　should



always　indicate　one　and　the　same　object；　and　never　more　or　less。　As



often；　therefore；　as　different　branches　of　a　matter　are　discussed；



the　necessity　for　a　distinction　arises。　The　school　now　understands



by　the　term　'capital'　not　merely　the　material；　but　also　all　mental



and　social　means　of　and　aids　to　production。　It　clearly　ought；



therefore；　to　specify　wherever　it　speaks　of　capital；　whether　the



material　capital；　the　material　instruments　of　production；　or　the



mental　capital；　the　moral　and　physical　powers　which　are　inherent　in



individuals；　or　which　individuals　derive　from　social；　municipal；



and　political　conditions；　are　meant。　The　omission　of　this



distinction；　where　it　ought　to　be　drawn；　must　necessarily　lead　to



false　reasoning；　or　else　serve　to　conceal　false　reasoning。



Meanwhile；　however；　as　it　is　not　so　much　our　business　to　found　a



new　nomenclature　as　to　expose　the　errors　committed　under　the　cover



of　an　inexact　and　inadequate　nomenclature；　we　will　adopt　the　term



'capital；'　but　distinguish　between　mental　and　material　capital；



between　material；　agricultural；　manufacturing；　and　commercial



capital；　between　private　and　national　capital。



　　　　Adam　Smith　（by　means　of　the　common　expression；　capital）　urges



the　following　argument　against　the　protective　commercial　policy



which　is　adopted　to　the　present　day　by　all　his　followers：　'A



country　can　indeed　by　means　of　such　（protective）　regulations



produce　a　special　description　of　manufactures　sooner　than　without



them；　and　this　special　kind　of　manufactures　will　be　able　to　yield



after　some　time　as　cheap　or　still　cheaper　productions　than　the



foreign　country。　But　although　in　this　manner　we　can　succeed　in



directing　national　industry　sooner　into　those　channels　into　which



it　would