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cultivation；　and　are　repaid　with　enormous　interest　at　the　next

harvest；　or；　on　a　larger　scale；　they　lend　to　the　government；　or

to　those　to　whom　it　has　granted　a　portion　of　the　revenue；　and　are

indemnified　by　assignments　on　the　revenue　collectors；　or　by

having　certain　districts　put　into　their　possession；　that　they　may

pay　themselves　from　the　revenues；　to　enable　them　to　do　which；　a

great　portion　of　the　powers　of　government　are　usually　made　over

simultaneously；　to　be　exercised　by　them　until　either　the

districts　are　redeemed；　or　their　receipts　have　liquidated　the

debt。　Thus；　the　commercial　operations　of　both　these　classes　of

dealers　take　pLace　principally　upon　that　part　of　the　produce　of

the　country　which　forms　the　revenue　of　the　government。　From　that

revenue　their　capital　is　periodically　replaced　with　a　profit；　and

that　is　also　the　source　from　which　their　original　funds　have

almost　always　been　derived。　Such；　in　its　general　features；　is　the

economical　condition　of　most　of　the　countries　of　Asia；　as　it　has

been　from　beyond　the　commencement　of　authentic　history；　and　is

still；　wherever　not　disturbed　by　foreign　influences。

　　　　In　the　agricultural　communities　of　ancient　Europe　whose　early

condition　is　best　known　to　us；　the　course　of　things　was

different。　These；　at　their　origin；　were　mostly　small

town…communities；　at　the　first　plantation　of　which；　in　an

unoccupied　country；　or　in　one　from　which　the　former　inhabitants

had　been　expelled；　the　land　which　was　taken　possession　of　was

regularly　divided；　in　equal　or　in　graduated　allotments；　among　the

families　composing　the　community。　In　some　cases；　instead　of　a

town　there　was　a　confederation　of　towns；　occupied　by　people　of

the　same　reputed　race；　and　who　were　supposed　to　have　settled　in

the　country　about　the　same　time。　Each　family　produced　its　own

food　and　the　materials　of　its　clothing；　which　were　worked　up

within　itself；　usually　by　the　women　of　the　family；　into　the

coarse　fabrics　with　which　the　age　was　contented。　Taxes　there　were

none；　as　there　were　either　no　paid　officers　of　government；　or　if

there　were；　their　payment　had　been　provided　for　by　a　reserved

portion　of　land；　cultivated　by　slaves　on　account　of　the　state；

and　the　army　consisted　of　the　body　of　citizens。　The　whole　produce

of　the　soil；　therefore；　belonged；　without　deduction；　to　the

family　which　cultivated　it。　So　long　as　the　process　of　events

permitted　this　disposition　of　property　to　last；　the　state　of

society　was；　for　the　majority　of　the　free　cultivators；　probably

not　an　undesirable　one；　and　under　it；　in　some　cases；　the　advance

of　mankind　in　intellectual　culture　was　extraordinarily　rapid　and

brilliant。　This　more　especially　happened　where；　along　with

advantageous　circumstances　of　race　and　climate；　and　no　doubt　with

many　favourable　accidents　of　which　all　trace　is　now　lost；　was

combined　the　advantage　of　a　position　on　the　shores　of　a　great

inland　sea；　the　other　coasts　of　which　were　already　occupied　by

settled　communities。　The　knowledge　which　in　such　a　position　was

acquired　of　foreign　productions；　and　the　easy　access　of　foreign

ideas　and　inventions；　made　the　chain　of　routine；　usually　so

strong　in　a　rude　people；　hang　loosely　on　these　communities。　To

speak　only　of　their　industrial　development；　they　early　acquired

variety　of　wants　and　desires；　which　stimulated　them　to　extract

from　their　own　soil　the　utmost　which　they　knew　how　to　make　it

yield；　and　when　their　soil　was　sterile；　or　after　they　had　reached

the　limit　of　its　capacity；　they　often　became　traders；　and　bought

up　the　productions　of　foreign　countries；　to　sell　them　in　other

countries　with　a　profit。

　　　　The　duration；　however；　of　this　state　of　things　was　from　the

first　precarious。　These　little　communities　lived　in　a　state　of

almost　perpetual　war。　For　this　there　were　many　causes。　In　the

ruder　and　purely　agricultural　communities　a　frequent　cause　was

the　mere　pressure　of　their　increasing　population　upon　their

limited　land；　aggravated　as　that　pressure　so　often　was　by

deficient　harvests；　in　the　rude　state　of　their　agriculture；　and

depending　as　they　did　for　food　upon　a　very　small　extent　of

country。　On　these　occasions；　the　community　often　emigrated　en

masse；　or　sent　forth　a　swarm　of　its　youth；　to　seek；　sword　in

hand；　for　some　less　warlike　people；　who　could　be　expelled　from

their　land；　or　detained　to　cultivate　it　as　slaves　for　the　benefit

of　their　despoilers。　What　the　less　advanced　tribes　did　from

necessity；　the　more　prosperous　did　from　ambition　and　the　military

spirit：　and　after　a　time　the　whole　of　these　city…communities　were

either　conquerors　or　conquered。　In　some　cases；　the　conquering

state　contented　itself　with　imposing　a　tribute　on　the　vanquished：

who　being；　in　consideration　of　that　burden；　freed　from　the

expense　and　trouble　of　their　own　military　and　naval　protection；

might　enjoy　under　it　a　considerable　share　of　economical

prosperity；　while　the　ascendant　community　obtained　a　surplus　of

wealth；　available　for　purposes　of　collective　luxury　or

magnificence。　From　such　a　surplus　the　Parthenon　and　the　Propylaea

were　built；　the　sculptures　of　Pheidias　paid　for；　and　the

festivals　celebrated；　for　which　AEschylus；　Sophocles；　Euripides；

and　Aristophanes　composed　their　dramas。　But　this　state　of

political　relations；　most　useful；　while　it　lasted；　to　the

progress　and　ultimate　interest　of　mankind；　had　not　the　elements

of　durability。　A　small　conquering　community　which　does　not

incorporate　its　conquests；　always　ends　by　being　conquered。

Universal　dominion；　therefore；　at　last　rested　with　the　people　who

practised　this　art　　with　the　Romans；　who；　whatever　were　their

other　devices；　always　either　began　or　ended　by　taking　a　great

part　of　the　land　to　enrich　their　own　leading　citizens；　and　by

adopting　into　the　governing　body　the　principal　possessors　of　the

remainder。　It　is　unnecessary　to　dwell　on　the　melancholy

economomical　history　of　the　Roman　empire。　When　inequality　of

wealth　once　commences；　in　a　community　not　constantly　engaged　in

repairing　by　industry　the　injuries　of　fortune；　its　advances　are

gigantic；　the　great　masses　of　wealth　swallow　up　the　smaller。　The

Roman　empire　ultimately　became　covered　with　the　vast　landed

possessions　of　a　comparatively　few　families；　for　whose　luxury；

and　still　more　for　whose　ostentation；　the　most　costly　products

were　raised；　soil　were　slaves；　or　small　tenants　in　a　while　the

condition。　cultivators　of　the　soil　were　slaves；　or　small　tenants

in　nearly　servile　condition。　From　this　time　the　weaLth　of　the

empire　progressively　declined。　In　the　beginning；　the　public

revenues；　and　the　resources　of　rich　individuals；　sufficed　at

least　to　cover　Italy　with　splendid　edifices；　public　and　private；

but　at　length　so　dwindled　under　the　enervating　influences　of

misgovernment；　that　what　remained　was　not　even　sufficient　to　keep

those　edifices　from　decay。　The　strength　and　riches　of　the

civilized　world　became　inadequate　to　make　head　against　the　nomad

population　which　skirted　its　northern　frontier；