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history of philosophy-及2何蛍

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          for thought must�察�be taken from thought itself ´ and the determination that we must
          commence�察�conclude and think from experience。 This is the opposition between
          rationalism and empiricism�察�but it is really a subordinate one�察�because even the
          metaphysical mode in philosophy�察�which only allows validity to immanent thought��
          does not take what is methodically developed from the necessity of thought�察�but in
          the old way derives its content from inward or outward experience�察�and through
          reflection and meditation renders it abstract。 The form of philosophy which is first
          reached through thought is metaphysics�察�the form of the thinking understanding�察�this
          period has�察�as its outstanding figures�察�Descartes and Spinoza�察�likewise Malebranche
          and Locke�察�Leibnitz and Wolff。 The second form is Scepticism and Criticism with
          regard to the thinking understanding�察�to metaphysics as such�察�and to the universal of
          empiricism�察�here we shall go on to speak of representatives of the Scottish�察�German��
          and French philosophies�察�the French materialists again turn back to metaphysics。

          Chapter I。 ´ The Metaphysics of the Understanding

               METAPHYSICS is what reaches after substance�察�and this implies that one
               unity�察�one thought is maintained in opposition to dualism�察�just as Being was
               amongst the ancients。 In metaphysics itself we have�察�however�察�the opposition
               between substantiality and individuality。 What comes first is the spontaneous��
               but likewise uncritical�察�metaphysics�察�and it is represented by Descartes and
               Spinoza�察�who assert the unity of Being and thought。 The second stage is found
               in Locke�察�who treats of the opposition itself inasmuch as he considers the
               metaphysical Idea of experience�察�that is the origin of thoughts and their
               justification�察�not yet entering on the question of whether they are absolutely
               true。 In the third place we have Leibnitz's monad ´ the world viewed as a
               totality。

               A。 First Division

                    We here encounter the innate ideas of Descartes。 The philosophy of
                    Spinoza�察�in the second place�察�is related to the philosophy of Descartes
                    as its necessary development only�察�the method is an important part of it。
                    A method which stands alongside of Spinozism and which is also a
                    perfected development of Cartesianism�察�is�察�in the third place�察�that by
                    which Malebranche has represented this philosophy。

                    1。 Descartes
                    2。 Spinoza
                    3。 Malebranche

               B。 Second Division

                    It was Locke who became the instrument of setting forth this entire
                    manner of thinking in a systematic way�察�for he worked out Bacon's
                    position more fully。 And if Bacon made sensuous Being to be the truth��
                    Locke demonstrated the universal�察�Thought�察�to be present in sensuous
                    Being�察�or showed that we obtained the universal�察�the true�察�from
                    experience。 From Locke a wide culture proceeds�察�influencing English
                    philosophers more especially�察�the forms adopted by this school were
                    various�察�but the principle was the same�察�it became a general method of
                    regarding things in a popular way�察�and calls itself Philosophy�察�although
                    the object of Philosophy is not to be met with here。

                    1。 Locke
                    2。 Hugo Grotius
                    3。 Thomas Hobbes
                    4。 Cudworth�察�Clarke�察�Wollaston
                    5。 Puffendorf
                    6。 Newton

               C。 Third Division

                    The third development of the philosophy of the understanding is that
                    represented by Leibnitz and Wolff。  If Wolff's metaphysics is divested
                    of its rigid form�察�we have as a result the later popular philosophy。

                    1。 Leibnitz
                    2。 Wolff
                    3。 German Popular Philosophy

          Chapter II。 ´ Transition Period

               THE decadence which we find in thought until the philosophy of Kant is
               reached�察�is manifested in what was at this time advocated in opposition to the
               metaphysic of the understanding�察�and which may be called a general popular
               philosophy�察�a reflecting empiricism�察�which to a greater or less extent becomes
               itself a metaphysic�察�just as�察�on the other hand�察�that metaphysic�察�in as far as it
               extended to particular sciences�察�becomes empiricism。 As against these
               metaphysical contradictions�察�as against the artificialities of the metaphysical
               synthesis�察�as against the assistance of God�察�the preestablished harmony�察�the
               best possible world�察�&c。�察�as against this merely artificial understanding�察�we
               now find that fixed principles�察�immanent in mind�察�have been asserted or
               maintained respecting what is felt�察�intuitively perceived and honoured in the
               cultured human breast。 And in distinction to the assertion that we only find the
               solution in the principles of a fixed and permanent content form a reconciliation
               here and now�察�they adopt a position of independence�察�and assume an
               intellectual standing´ground which they find in what has generally been termed
               the healthy human understanding。 Such determinations may indeed be found to
               be perfectly good and valid if the feelings�察�intuitions�察�heart and understanding
               of man be morally and intellectually fashioned�察�for in that case better and more
               noble feelings and desires may rule in men and a more universal content�察�may
               be expressed in these principles。 But when men make what we call sound
               reason ´ that which is by nature implanted in man's breast ´ into the content
               and the principle�察�the healthy human understanding discovers itself to be
               identical with a feeling and knowledge belonging to nature。 The Indians who
               worship a cow�察�and who expose or slay newborn children�察�and commit all
               sorts of barbarous deeds�察�the Egyptians who pray to a bird�察�the apis�察�&c。�察�and
               the Turks as well�察�all possess a healthy human understanding similar in nature。
               But the healthy human understanding and the natural feeling of rude and
               barbarous Turks�察�when taken as a standard�察�result in shocking principles。
               When we speak of healthy human understanding�察�however�察�of natural feelings��
               we always have before our eyes a cultured mind�察�and those who 
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