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訊伽慕垂 卦指云慕朕村 紗秘慕禰 厘議慕尺 厘議慕禰 TXT畠云和墮 〆辺茄欺厘議箝誓匂〇

history of philosophy-及3何蛍

酔楯荷恬: 梓囚徒貧圭�鮗� ○ 賜 ★ 辛酔堀貧和鍬匈 梓囚徒貧議 Enter 囚辛指欺云慕朕村匈 梓囚徒貧圭�鮗� ● 辛指欺云匈競何! 泌惚云慕短嗤堋響頼���誅卒亮茂�俊彭堋響��辛聞喘貧圭 "辺茄欺厘議箝誓匂" 孔嬬 才 "紗秘慕禰" 孔嬬��


               When we speak of healthy human understanding�察�however�察�of natural feelings��
               we always have before our eyes a cultured mind�察�and those who make the
               healthy human reason�察�the natural knowledge�察�the immediate feelings and
               inspirations found in themselves�察�into a rule and standard�察�do not know that
               when religion�察�morality�察�and rectitude are discovered to be present in the
               human breast�察�this is due to culture and education�察�which are the first to make
               such principles into natural feelings。 Here natural feelings and the healthy
               human understanding are thus made the principle�察�and much may be
               recognized as coming under these heads。 This then is the form taken by
               Philosophy in the eighteenth century。 Taken as a whole�察�three points of view
               have to be considered�察�in the first place�察�Hume must be regarded on his own
               account�察�then the Scottish�察�and�察�thirdly�察�the French philosophy。 Hume is a
               sceptic�察�the Scottish philosophy opposes the scepticism of Hume�察�the French
               philosophy has in the ;enlightenment; of Germany ��by which expression is
               indicated that form of German philosophy which is not Wolffian metaphysics��
               an appendage of a feebler form。 Since from the metaphysical God we can
               make no further progress in the concrete�察�Locke grounds his content on
               experience。 But that empiricism leads thought to no fixed standpoint�察�Hume
               demonstrates by denying every universal�察�the Scottish philosophers�察�on the
               contrary�察�undoubtedly maintain universal propositions and truths�察�but not
               through thought。 Hence in empiricism itself the fixed standpoint has now to be
               adopted�察�thus the French find the universal in the actuality which they call
               r└alit└。 They do not�察�however�察�find its content in and from thought�察�but as
               living substance�察�as nature and matter。 All this is a further working out of
               reflecting empiricism�察�and some more details respecting it must still be given。

               A。 Idealism and Scepticism

                    Thought generally is simple�察�universal self´identity�察�but in the form of
                    negative movement�察�whereby the determinate abrogates itself。 This
                    movement of Being´for´self is now an essential moment of thought��
                    while hitherto it was outside it�察�and thus grasping itself as movement in
                    itself�察�thought is self´consciousness ´ at first indeed formal�察�as individual
                    self´consciousness。 Such a form it has in scepticism�察�but this distinction
                    marks it off from the older scepticism�察�that now the certainty of reality is
                    made the starting point。 With the ancients�察�on the contrary�察�scepticism is
                    the return into individual consciousness in such a way that to it this
                    consciousness is not the truth�察�in other words that scepticism does not
                    give expression to the results arrived at�察�and attains no positive
                    significance。 But since in the modern world this absolute substantiality��
                    this unity of implicitude and self´consciousness is fundamental ´ that is��
                    this faith in reality generally ´ scepticism has here the form of idealism��
                    i。e。�察�of expressing self´consciousness or certainty of self as all reality
                    and truth。 The crudest form of this idealism is when self´consciousness��
                    as individual or formal�察�does not proceed further than to say�此�All objects
                    are our conceptions。 We find this subjective idealism in Berkeley�察。�1��
                    and another form of the same in Hume。 

                    1。 Berkeley
                    2。 Hume

               B。 Scottish Philosophy

                    In Scotland quite another school of thought developed�察�and the Scotch
                    are the foremost of Hume's opponents�察�in German philosophy�察�on the
                    other hand�察�we have to recognize in Kant another opposing force to
                    that of Hume。 To the Scottish school many philosophers belong�察�English
                    philosophy is now restricted to Edinburgh and Glasgow�察�in which
                    places a number of professors belonging to this school succeeded one
                    another。 To the scepticism of Hume they oppose an inward
                    independent source of truth for all that pertains to religion and morality。
                    This coincides with Kant�察�who also maintains an inward source or
                    spring as against external perception�察�but in the case of Kant this has
                    quite another form than that which it possesses with the Scottish
                    philosophers。 To them this inward independent source is not thought or
                    reason as such�察�for the content which comes to pass from this
                    inwardness is concrete in its nature�察�and likewise demands for itself the
                    external matter of experience。 It consists of popular principles�察�which
                    on the one hand are opposed to the externality of the sources of
                    knowledge�察�and�察�on the other�察�to metaphysics as such�察�to abstract
                    thought or reasoning on its own account。 This sort of reasoning
                    understanding applied itself to ethics and to politics ´ sciences which
                    have been much developed by German�察�French�察�and above all by
                    Scottish philosophers ��supra�察�p。 320���察�they regarded morality as
                    cultured men would�察�and sought to bring moral duties under a principle。
                    Many of their works are translated into German�察�several of these on
                    ethics or morality are translated by Garve�察�for instance�察�who also
                    translated Cicero De Officiis�察�and they are written in a manner similar
                    to that of Cicero when he uses the expression Insitum est a natura
                    ��Vol。 I。 p。 93��。 This moral sentiment and the ordinary human
                    understanding hereafter formed the common principle to a whole
                    succession of Scots�察�such as Thomas Reid�察�Beattie�察�Oswald�察�and
                    others�察�in this way they frequently made sagacious observations�察�but
                    with them speculative philosophy quite disappears。 One special
                    characteristic of these Scottish philosophers is that they have sought
                    accurately to define the principle of knowledge�察�but on the whole they
                    start from the same point as that which was in Germany likewise
                    accepted as the principle。 That is to say they represented the so´ca
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