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nations　with　their　distinct　nature　and　interests　is　recognised；　it



becomes　necessary　to　modify　the　economy　of　human　society　in



accordance　with　these　special　interests；　and　that　if　Cooper



intended　to　represent　these　modifications　as　errors；　it　was　very



wise　on　his　part　from　the　beginning　to　disown　the　very　existence　of



nations。



　　　　For　our　own　part；　we　are　far　from　rejecting　the　theory　of



cosmopolitical　economy；　as　it　has　been　perfected　by　the　prevailing



school；　we　are；　however；　of　opinion　that　political　economy；　or　as



Say　calls　it　'閏onomie　publique；'　should　also　be　developed



scientifically；　and　that　it　is　always　better　to　call　things　by



their　proper　names　than　to　give　them　significations　which　stand



opposed　to　the　true　import　of　words。



　　　　If　we　wish　to　remain　true　to　the　laws　of　logic　and　of　the



nature　of　things；　we　must　set　the　economy　of　individuals　against



the　economy　of　societies；　and　discriminate　in　respect　to　the　latter



between　true　political　or　national　economy　（which；　emanating　from



the　idea　and　nature　of　the　nation；　teaches　how　a　given　nation　in



the　present　state　of　the　world　and　its　own　special　national



relations　can　maintain　and　improve　its　economical　conditions）　and



cosmopolitical　economy；　which　originates　in　the　assumption　that　all



nations　of　the　earth　form　but　one　society　living　in　a　perpetual



state　of　peace。



　　　　If；　as　the　prevailing　school　requites；　we　assume　a　universal



union　or　confederation　of　all　nations　as　the　guarantee　for　an



everlasting　peace；　the　principle　of　international　free　trade　seems



to　be　perfectly　justified。　The　less　every　individual　is　restrained



in　pursuing　his　own　individual　prosperity；　the　greater　the　number



and　wealth　of　those　with　whom　he　has　free　intercourse；　the　greater



the　area　over　which　his　individual　activity　can　exercise　itself；



the　easier　it　will　be　for　him　to　utilise　for　the　increase　of　his



prosperity　the　properties　given　him　by　nature；　the　knowledge　and



talents　which　he　has　acquired；　and　the　forces　of　nature　placed　at



his　disposal。　As　with　separate　individuals；　so　is　it　also　the　case



with　individual　communities；　provinces；　and　countries。　A　simpleton



only　could　maintain　that　a　union　for　free　commercial　intercourse



between　themselves　is　not　as　advantageous　to　the　different　states



included　in　the　United　States　of　North　America；　to　the　various



departments　of　France；　and　to　the　various　German　allied　states；　as



would　be　their　separation　by　internal　provincial　customs　tariffs。



　　　　In　the　union　of　the　three　kingdoms　of　Great　Britain　and　Ireland



the　world　witnesses　a　great　and　irrefragable　example　of　the



immeasurable　efficacy　of　free　trade　between　united　nations。　Let　us



only　suppose　all　other　nations　of　the　earth　to　be　united　in　a



similar　manner；　and　the　most　vivid　imagination　will　not　be　able　to



picture　to　itself　the　sum　of　prosperity　and　good　fortune　which　the



whole　human　race　would　thereby　acquire。



　　　　Unquestionably　the　idea　of　a　universal　confederation　and　a



perpetual　peace　is　commended　both　by　common　sense　and　religion。（2*）



If　single　combat　between　individuals　is　at　present　considered　to　be



contrary　to　reason；　how　much　more　must　combat　between　two　nations



be　similarly　condemned？　The　proofs　which　social　economy　can　produce



from　the　history　of　the　civilisation　of　mankind　of　the



reasonableness　of　bringing　about　the　union　of　all　mankind　under　the



law　of　right；　are　perhaps　those　which　are　the　clearest　to　sound



human　understanding。



　　　　History　teaches　that　wherever　individuals　are　engaged　in　wars；



the　prosperity　of　mankind　is　at　its　lowest　stage；　and　that　it



increases　in　the　same　proportion　in　which　the　concord　of　mankind



increases。　In　the　primitive　state　of　the　human　race；　first　unions



of　families　took　place；　then　towns；　then　confederations　of　towns；



then　union　of　whole　countries；　finally　unions　of　several　states



under　one　and　the　same　government。　If　the　nature　of　things　has　been



powerful　enough　to　extend　this　union　（which　commenced　with　the



family）　over　hundreds　of　millions；　we　ought　to　consider　that　nature



to　be　powerful　enough　to　accomplish　the　union　of　all　nations。　If



the　human　mind　were　capable　of　comprehending　the　advantages　of　this



great　union；　so　ought　we　to　venture　to　deem　it　capable　of



understanding　the　still　greater　benefits　which　would　result　from　a



union　of　the　whole　human　race。　Many　instances　indicate　this



tendency　in　the　spirit　of　the　present　times。　We　need　only　hint　at



the　progress　made　in　sciences；　arts；　and　discoveries；　in　industry



and　social　order。　It　may　be　already　foreseen　with　certainty；　that



after　a　lapse　of　a　few　decades　the　civilised　nations　of　the　earth



will；　by　the　perfection　of　the　means　of　conveyance；　be　united　as



respects　both　material　and　mental　interchange　in　as　close　a　manner



as　（or　even　closer　than）　that　in　which　a　century　ago　the　various



counties　of　England　were　connected。　Continental　governments　possess



already　at　the　present　moment　in　the　telegraph　the　means　of



communicating　with　one　another；　almost　as　if　they　were　at　one　and



the　same　place。　Powerful　forces　previously　unknown　have　already



raised　industry　to　a　degree　of　perfection　hitherto　never



anticipated；　and　others　still　more　powerful　have　already　announced



their　appearance。　But　the　more　that　industry　advances；　and



proportionately　extends　over　the　countries　of　the　earth；　the



smaller　will　be　the　possibility　of　wars。　Two　nations　equally　well



developed　in　industry　could　mutually　inflict　on　one　another　more



injury　in　one　week　than　they　would　be　able　to　make　good　in　a　whole



generation。　But　hence　it　follows　that　the　same　new　forces　which



have　hitherto　served　particularly　for　production　will　not　withhold



their　services　from　destruction；　and　will　principally　favour　the



side　of　defence；　and　especially　the　European　Continental　nations；



while　they　threaten　the　insular　State　with　the　loss　of　those



advantages　which　have　been　gained　by　her　insular　position　for　her



defence。　In　the　congresses　of　the　great　European　powers　Europe



possesses　already　the　embryo　of　a　future　congress　of　nations。　The



endeavours　to　settle　differences　by　protocol　are　clearly　already



prevailing　over　those　which　obtain　justice　by　force　of　arms。　A



clearer　insight　into　the　nature　of　wealth　and　industry　has　led　the



wiser　heads　of　all　civilised　nations　to　the　conviction　that　both



the　civilisation　of　barbarous　and　semi…barbarous　nations；　and　of



those　whose　culture　is　retrograding；　as　well　as　the　formation　of



colonies；　offer　to　civilised　nations　a　field　for　the　development　of



their　productive　powers　which　promises　them　much　richer　and　sa